Urban problems hot subject throughout Southeast Asia
Urban problems hot subject throughout Southeast Asia
Douglas Webster examines the challenges and opportunities facing
the urban environment in ASEAN.
The urban environment has become one of the leading issues in
the ASEAN states. "Brown issues", as urban environmental concerns
are now labeled, are surpassing "green issues", that is,
primarily rural environmental issues, in terms of public concern
and debate. Future expenditures in ASEAN to reverse urban
environmental degradation will be large, totaling perhaps US$50
billion by the year 2000.
This rapidly increasing concern for the urban environment in
ASEAN is being driven by a number of factors:
* The majority of the population in all current ASEAN states
will live in cities before 2010;
* The middle class is the fastest growing socio-economic class
in ASEAN cities (with the possible exception of the Philippines);
* Increased globalization of the world economy is leading to
pressures on all countries to meet basic environmental standards
related to urban activities, particularly manufacturing;
* Public opinion in Asia related to the environment focuses
more on public health issues and the immediate environment than
on rural and global issues such as biodiversity, protected areas,
ozone depletion and so on.
It is in middle-income cities, the category in which most
ASEAN cities fall, with the exception of Singapore, that urban
environmental problems tend to be worst; large-scale
industrialization has occurred, motor vehicles are widespread;
but effective responses to urban environmental degeneration have
not yet been formulated or are "in the pipeline". For example,
the World Bank indicates that air pollution peaks at about $3,000
per capita in major world cities. However, ASEAN city regions
face the advantage of falling rates of population growth before
the end of this century and have access to financial resources to
respond to urban environmental problems.
The primary environmental problems in ASEAN cities, again
Singapore is an exception, are air and water pollution, and solid
waste treatment and disposal. Congestion contributes to the
severity of these problems. As a generalization, air pollution is
primarily caused by vehicles, not industry, particularly two-
stroke engine vehicles (largely motorcycles) and overloaded
diesel-fueled buses and trucks. Power generation and heavy
industry are also significant factors in air pollution.
Water pollution is primarily caused by domestic wastewater
because of a lack of adequate sewerage systems. Industry
contributes substantially to water pollution as well,
particularly in terms of firms emitting liquid pollutants (and to
a lesser extent solid wastes) into waterways and drains. Solid
waste is a problem in most cities of the region primarily because
of high rates of growth in consumption. Hazardous waste,
particularly hospital wastes and toxic substances, is often not
adequately handled in the region's cities.
In affluent Singapore, the priority urban environmental
concerns relate to indoor air pollution and urban amenity issues,
such as historical preservation and urban design.
Issues
There are a number of key urban environmental issues facing
ASEAN city regions. Firstly, there is institutional fragmentation
of urban environmental functions which means that quality and
effectiveness of measures vary considerably among sectors, and
that potential synergies are not achieved, for example, solid
waste blocks drainage systems that would otherwise function
well.
Secondly, management systems and instruments to improve the
urban environment are poorly managed. Added to that is a lack of
decentralization, which impedes the capability of local
authorities to take action (they lack human, technical and
monetary resources).
Then there is also an inability of public sector authorities
to effectively assess technologies in the context of aggressive
marketing by private firms, for example, choosing between
incineration and land-fill in addressing solid waste problems.
And finally, there is a preponderance of medium and small
firms that are difficult to monitor.
What can be done?
* "Do it right the first time". Most demographic growth and new
economic activity will occur on the periphery of existing urban
regions. For example, in the extended Bangkok region close to 80
percent of demographic growth will occur outside the existing
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration area. In these areas, good
environmental infrastructure can be installed and high amenity
communities can be created at reasonable cost.
* In existing built-up areas, the emphasis in terms of
environmental rehabilitation should be on wastewater and traffic
congestion reduction.
* Most of the industrial plant and energy generating capacity
that will exist in ASEAN by 2010 has yet to be built (perhaps 80
percent of the former and 65 percent of the latter). Thus, as a
priority, emphasis should be on ensuring that new industrial
plant and energy generating capacity meet high standards in terms
of process engineering conducive to urban environmental quality.
Furthermore, to the extent possible, new and existing industry
should be encouraged to (re)locate to industrial estates with
high levels of environmental services.
* Eighty percent of manufacturing-sourced pollution is
currently generated by five to 10 industries in most ASEAN urban
regions, these industries should be targeted for clean up.
* The traffic problem must be solved in cities such as Bangkok,
Manila and Jakarta. Political will is needed to implement and
enforce demand side measures (as is being done to some extent in
Jakarta), especially until supply side projects can be completed.
* The institutional framework for effective delivery of urban
environmental infrastructure and services needs considerable
development. Given the consensus that privatization of
environmental services is generally beneficial, well thought out
policies, procedures and instruments to achieve this objective
are needed. As a component of institutional strengthening, ASEAN
urban regions should consider developing and implementing urban
environmental strategies.
* There is a need to further increase the awareness of the
public in terms of their environmental behavior, for example, as
consumers and voters. Increasing high quality media coverage of
the issue would contribute to awareness.
* Measures to improve the urban environment should work with
market forces and public opinion (including community
preferences), not against them.
* Polluters should pay; as should users or beneficiaries of
environmental services such as wastewater treatment, recreational
facilities and so on.
Dr. Douglas Webster is Senior Urban Planning Adviser in the Urban
Development Coordination Division, National Economic and Social
Development Board, Thailand.