Urban problems hot subject throughout Southeast Asia<\/p>\n
Douglas Webster examines the challenges and opportunities facing
\nthe urban environment in ASEAN.<\/p>\n
The urban environment has become one of the leading issues in
\nthe ASEAN states. \"Brown issues\", as urban environmental concerns
\nare now labeled, are surpassing \"green issues\", that is,
\nprimarily rural environmental issues, in terms of public concern
\nand debate. Future expenditures in ASEAN to reverse urban
\nenvironmental degradation will be large, totaling perhaps US$50
\nbillion by the year 2000.<\/p>\n
This rapidly increasing concern for the urban environment in
\nASEAN is being driven by a number of factors:<\/p>\n
* The majority of the population in all current ASEAN states
\nwill live in cities before 2010;<\/p>\n
* The middle class is the fastest growing socio-economic class
\nin ASEAN cities (with the possible exception of the Philippines);<\/p>\n
* Increased globalization of the world economy is leading to
\npressures on all countries to meet basic environmental standards
\nrelated to urban activities, particularly manufacturing;<\/p>\n
* Public opinion in Asia related to the environment focuses
\nmore on public health issues and the immediate environment than
\non rural and global issues such as biodiversity, protected areas,
\nozone depletion and so on.<\/p>\n
It is in middle-income cities, the category in which most
\nASEAN cities fall, with the exception of Singapore, that urban
\nenvironmental problems tend to be worst; large-scale
\nindustrialization has occurred, motor vehicles are widespread;
\nbut effective responses to urban environmental degeneration have
\nnot yet been formulated or are \"in the pipeline\". For example,
\nthe World Bank indicates that air pollution peaks at about $3,000
\nper capita in major world cities. However, ASEAN city regions
\nface the advantage of falling rates of population growth before
\nthe end of this century and have access to financial resources to
\nrespond to urban environmental problems.<\/p>\n
The primary environmental problems in ASEAN cities, again
\nSingapore is an exception, are air and water pollution, and solid
\nwaste treatment and disposal. Congestion contributes to the
\nseverity of these problems. As a generalization, air pollution is
\nprimarily caused by vehicles, not industry, particularly two-
\nstroke engine vehicles (largely motorcycles) and overloaded
\ndiesel-fueled buses and trucks. Power generation and heavy
\nindustry are also significant factors in air pollution.<\/p>\n
Water pollution is primarily caused by domestic wastewater
\nbecause of a lack of adequate sewerage systems. Industry
\ncontributes substantially to water pollution as well,
\nparticularly in terms of firms emitting liquid pollutants (and to
\na lesser extent solid wastes) into waterways and drains. Solid
\nwaste is a problem in most cities of the region primarily because
\nof high rates of growth in consumption. Hazardous waste,
\nparticularly hospital wastes and toxic substances, is often not
\nadequately handled in the region's cities.<\/p>\n
In affluent Singapore, the priority urban environmental
\nconcerns relate to indoor air pollution and urban amenity issues,
\nsuch as historical preservation and urban design.<\/p>\n
Issues<\/p>\n
There are a number of key urban environmental issues facing
\nASEAN city regions. Firstly, there is institutional fragmentation
\nof urban environmental functions which means that quality and
\neffectiveness of measures vary considerably among sectors, and
\nthat potential synergies are not achieved, for example, solid
\nwaste blocks drainage systems that would otherwise function
\nwell.<\/p>\n
Secondly, management systems and instruments to improve the
\nurban environment are poorly managed. Added to that is a lack of
\ndecentralization, which impedes the capability of local
\nauthorities to take action (they lack human, technical and
\nmonetary resources).<\/p>\n
Then there is also an inability of public sector authorities
\nto effectively assess technologies in the context of aggressive
\nmarketing by private firms, for example, choosing between
\nincineration and land-fill in addressing solid waste problems.<\/p>\n
And finally, there is a preponderance of medium and small
\nfirms that are difficult to monitor.<\/p>\n
What can be done?<\/p>\n
* \"Do it right the first time\". Most demographic growth and new
\neconomic activity will occur on the periphery of existing urban
\nregions. For example, in the extended Bangkok region close to 80
\npercent of demographic growth will occur outside the existing
\nBangkok Metropolitan Administration area. In these areas, good
\nenvironmental infrastructure can be installed and high amenity
\ncommunities can be created at reasonable cost.<\/p>\n
* In existing built-up areas, the emphasis in terms of
\nenvironmental rehabilitation should be on wastewater and traffic
\ncongestion reduction.<\/p>\n
* Most of the industrial plant and energy generating capacity
\nthat will exist in ASEAN by 2010 has yet to be built (perhaps 80
\npercent of the former and 65 percent of the latter). Thus, as a
\npriority, emphasis should be on ensuring that new industrial
\nplant and energy generating capacity meet high standards in terms
\nof process engineering conducive to urban environmental quality.
\nFurthermore, to the extent possible, new and existing industry
\nshould be encouraged to (re)locate to industrial estates with
\nhigh levels of environmental services.<\/p>\n
* Eighty percent of manufacturing-sourced pollution is
\ncurrently generated by five to 10 industries in most ASEAN urban
\nregions, these industries should be targeted for clean up.<\/p>\n
* The traffic problem must be solved in cities such as Bangkok,
\nManila and Jakarta. Political will is needed to implement and
\nenforce demand side measures (as is being done to some extent in
\nJakarta), especially until supply side projects can be completed.<\/p>\n
* The institutional framework for effective delivery of urban
\nenvironmental infrastructure and services needs considerable
\ndevelopment. Given the consensus that privatization of
\nenvironmental services is generally beneficial, well thought out
\npolicies, procedures and instruments to achieve this objective
\nare needed. As a component of institutional strengthening, ASEAN
\nurban regions should consider developing and implementing urban
\nenvironmental strategies.<\/p>\n
* There is a need to further increase the awareness of the
\npublic in terms of their environmental behavior, for example, as
\nconsumers and voters. Increasing high quality media coverage of
\nthe issue would contribute to awareness.<\/p>\n
* Measures to improve the urban environment should work with
\nmarket forces and public opinion (including community
\npreferences), not against them.<\/p>\n
* Polluters should pay; as should users or beneficiaries of
\nenvironmental services such as wastewater treatment, recreational
\nfacilities and so on.<\/p>\n
Dr. Douglas Webster is Senior Urban Planning Adviser in the Urban
\nDevelopment Coordination Division, National Economic and Social
\nDevelopment Board, Thailand.<\/p>",
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"sponsor": "Okusi Associates",
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