Often Considered Weak, the Song Dynasty Was Actually the Most Advanced Era in Chinese History

When discussing the glory of Chinese civilisation, many people immediately recall the Han, Tang, or Ming dynasties. However, a number of historians place the Song Dynasty (960–1279) as one of the peaks of Chinese civilisation’s development. It was during this period that China experienced rapid progress in the economy, science, technology, education, and urban life on a scale never seen before. French historian Jacques Gernet, in his work Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, described the Song Dynasty as a period of great transformation that changed the face of Chinese society. Meanwhile, several economic historians view this era as one of the greatest economic transformations in the pre-modern world. One indicator of this progress is evident in the development of large cities. The capital Kaifeng during the Northern Song and Hangzhou during the Southern Song were among the largest cities in the world at the time. Several studies estimate the population of both cities approached or even exceeded one million people during certain periods. The streets were filled with markets, shops, restaurants, entertainment centres, and trading activities that took place day and night. Economic progress was the main foundation of the Song Dynasty’s glory. Agricultural production increased thanks to the use of superior rice varieties imported from Southeast Asia. Abundant harvests spurred population growth and strengthened inter-regional trade activities. River routes, canals, and seaports developed into the economic arteries connecting various regions of China with the outside world. In the field of technology, the Song Dynasty produced various innovations that had a major impact on world history. Printing developed rapidly, making books and knowledge more accessible to the public. The use of the compass for maritime navigation was further refined, enabling Chinese ships to explore more distant trade routes. Shipbuilding technology also advanced, making the Chinese merchant fleet one of the most active of its era. Industrial progress also became a hallmark of this era. Economic historian Robert Hartwell estimated that China’s iron production during the Song period reached around 125,000 tonnes per year in the 11th century, a very large figure by the world’s standards at that time. This metal production was used to support agriculture, manufacturing, infrastructure, and military needs. For this reason, some researchers view the Song Dynasty as one of the most economically and technologically advanced societies of the medieval era. This progress was also supported by an education-based bureaucratic system. The government strengthened the state examination system, which allowed a person to obtain a position based on academic ability, not merely lineage or social status. This system gave rise to a group of scholar-officials who played an important role in government administration as well as the development of science. The glory of the Song Dynasty was not only felt on the Chinese mainland. Major ports such as Quanzhou and Guangzhou became meeting points for traders from all corners of the world. Arab, Persian, Indian, and Southeast Asian merchants regularly traded in China’s coastal regions. It was through these maritime trade routes that relations between China and the Islamic world developed rapidly. Muslim communities grew in several port cities and contributed to the economic activities that made the Song Dynasty one of the most important international trade centres of its time.