Colonial-Era Cohabitation: A Look at Governors and Council Members in Java

The phenomenon of cohabitation, or living together without official ties, has been a part of Indonesia’s social history. This practice dates back to the colonial era, particularly among Dutch officials residing in the Dutch East Indies. At that time, many high-ranking officials and Dutch citizens lived with local women without formal marriage. This occurred because bringing a wife from Europe to the Dutch East Indies was costly and risky. As a substitute, they established domestic relationships with local women, many of whom were from enslaved backgrounds. Governor-General of the VOC Gustaaf Willem Baron van Imhoff (1743-1750) was one such example. According to the book ‘Tempat-Tempat Bersejarah di Jakarta’ (2016), van Imhoff, who was recorded as having a wife, once received a beautiful slave as a gift from the Queen of Bone. The slave was baptised with the name Helena Pieters to live with him as a ‘life companion’. From this relationship, they subsequently had children. Another example is Governor-General Reinier de Klerk (1777-1780). Upon arriving in Java, de Klerk lived with a female slave. From this relationship, the couple had many children who were later sent to the Netherlands. It was not only Governors-General who engaged in such practices; other elites did as well. Advisor to Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles (1811-1816) and member of the Council of the Indies, Herman Warner Muntinghe, was recorded as living with three female slaves despite having a wife of Indo-European descent. Raffles himself was known not to object to his subordinates’ unofficial relationships with slaves. On this basis, during his administration, the practice of cohabitation was common. Another associate of Raffles, Alexander Hare, had female ‘life companions’ from various regions. In his book ‘Raffles and the British Invasion of Java’ (2012), Tim Hannigan noted that Hare exploited his position and power to exploit local women as ‘life companions’. In reality, the actions of the elites were just the tip of the iceberg. At lower levels, European employees, soldiers, and traders also frequently engaged in similar lifestyles, living with local women without marriage ties. Society eventually referred to this practice as ‘kumpul Gerbouw’. In Dutch, ‘Gerbouw’ means ‘building’ or ‘house’. Thus, the term was intended as a satire for those who shared a roof.