List of civilian militias based on political, ideological affiliations
Affiliated with the Indonesian Military (TNI):
Organisasi Pagar Desa: Founded in the 1950s by A.H. Nasution to help TNI eliminate Darul Islam/Tentara Islam Indonesia (DI/TII) separatist rebels; militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Angkatan Muda Siliwangi/Angkatan Muda Diponegoro: Founded in the 1970s by Ali Murtopo to support Golkar's victory and to fight against student demonstrations; militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Makikit: Founded in 1976 by the Army's Special Force (Kopassus) to help TNI deal with Fretilin/East Timor pro- independence fighters; militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Baladi Karya: Founded in 1963 by Soksi to help TNI eliminate the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI); militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Pam Swakarsa: Founded in 1998 by Abdul Gafur to secure the General Session of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR); militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Front Pembela Islam (FPI): Founded in 1998 by Habib Muhammad Rizieq Shihab to secure the MPR's General Session and combat drugs and immoral acts; militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Affiliated with B.J. Habibie:
Front Bersama Umat Islam: Founded by Eggy Sujana in 1999 to secure the MPR's General Session and fight against pro- Megawati/critical students; political Islamic-based, co-opted by the government.
Affiliated with Soeharto:
Satgas (Task Force) Tebas: Founded in 1998 by Dion Adikusumah to secure the MPR's General Session and handle pro- Megawati/critical students; militaristic, co-opted by the government.
Affiliated with Muhammadiyah:
Kokam: Founded in 1965 by Muhammadiyah to eliminate the PKI; modernist Islamic-based, co-opted by the government.
Affiliated with Nahdlatul Ulama (NU):
Pelopor Banser/Corps Disipliner Banser (CDB): Founded by KH Muhyiddin Abdusshomad to protect kyai (Muslim clerics) while campaigning; traditional Islamic-based, autonomous.
Pagar Nusa: Founded by Lora Cholil to secure NU events/activities, traditional Islamic-based, autonomous.
Affiliated with the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI Perjuangan):
Satgas Wirapati: Founded in 1997 by Soesilo Muslim to secure PDI Perjuangan's events/activities and secure Megawati's way to the presidential post; secular nationalist-based, autonomous.
Banteng Tengkorak: Founded in 1998 by Krismas Irmono to secure Megawati's way to the presidential post; secular nationalist- based, autonomous.
Affiliated with the United Development Party (PPP):
Gerakan Pemuda Ka'bah: Founded in 1998 by A.M. Saefuddin to secure Habibie's way to the presidential post; political Islamic- based, co-opted by the government.
Definitions of militia, paramilitary groups
Paramilitary groups are civilian organizations which may or may not adopt military symbols but all assume or have tasks similar to those of the police or military forces. (Ikrar Nusa Bhakti, researcher with LIPI)
Semi-military groups are groups of civilians undergoing military-style exercises, usually carrying weapons such as clubs or swords, and performing tasks similar to that of the police or military forces. (Bambang Purnomo, professor of law at Gadjah Mada University)
Militia is a quasi-professional military. (Premanisme Politik, a book published by ISAI).
Militia is a military organization of citizens with limited military training, which is available for emergency service, usually for local defense. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1995)
Paramilitary forces include a growing number of diverse organizations that have adopted a military structure, follow military indoctrination and training methods, and largely perform ancillary military functions that approximate, but rarely duplicate, all of the tasks carried out by regular or professional military forces. (International Military and Defense Encyclopedia, 1993)
-- Sri Wahyuni